Introduction to the dataset

The health insurance coverage data was compiled from the US Department of Health and Human Services and the US Census Bureau.

The Affordable Care Act (ACA) is the name for the comprehensive healthcare reform law and its amendments which address health insurance coverage, healthcare costs, and preventive care. The law was enacted in two parts: The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was signed into law on March 23, 2010, by President Barack Obama and was amended by the Health Care and Education Reconciliation Act on March 30, 2010.

This dataset provides health insurance coverage data for each state and the nation as a whole, including variables such as the uninsured rates before and after Obamacare, estimates of individuals covered by employer and marketplace healthcare plans, and enrollment in Medicare and Medicaid programs.

Project objectives

The project is aimed at self-studying the impact of the Affordable Care Act.

Data processing

# Package loading
library(tidyverse)

## ── Attaching core tidyverse packages ──────────────────────── tidyverse 2.0.0 ──
## ✔ dplyr     1.1.4     ✔ readr     2.1.4
## ✔ forcats   1.0.0     ✔ stringr   1.5.1
## ✔ ggplot2   3.4.4     ✔ tibble    3.2.1
## ✔ lubridate 1.9.3     ✔ tidyr     1.3.0
## ✔ purrr     1.0.2     
## ── Conflicts ────────────────────────────────────────── tidyverse_conflicts() ──
## ✖ dplyr::filter() masks stats::filter()
## ✖ dplyr::lag()    masks stats::lag()
## ℹ Use the conflicted package (<http://conflicted.r-lib.org/>) to force all conflicts to become errors

library(sf)

## Linking to GEOS 3.11.0, GDAL 3.5.3, PROJ 9.1.0; sf_use_s2() is TRUE

library(tmap)

## Breaking News: tmap 3.x is retiring. Please test v4, e.g. with
## remotes::install_github('r-tmap/tmap')

library(tmaptools)
library(ggcorrplot)

# Data loading
df = read_csv("aca data.csv")

## Rows: 52 Columns: 14
## ── Column specification ────────────────────────────────────────────────────────
## Delimiter: ","
## chr (5): State, Uninsured Rate (2010), Uninsured Rate (2015), Uninsured Rate...
## dbl (8): Health Insurance Coverage Change (2010-2015), Employer Health Insur...
## lgl (1): State Medicaid Expansion (2016)
## 
## ℹ Use `spec()` to retrieve the full column specification for this data.
## ℹ Specify the column types or set `show_col_types = FALSE` to quiet this message.

df

## # A tibble: 52 × 14
##    State    Uninsured Rate (2010…¹ Uninsured Rate (2015…² Uninsured Rate Chang…³
##    <chr>    <chr>                  <chr>                  <chr>                 
##  1 Alabama  14.6%                  10.1%                  -4.5%                 
##  2 Alaska   19.9%                  14.9%                  -5%                   
##  3 Arizona  16.9%                  10.8%                  -6.1%                 
##  4 Arkansas 17.5%                  9.5%                   -8%                   
##  5 Califor… 18.5%                  8.6%                   -9.9%                 
##  6 Colorado 15.9%                  8.1%                   -7.8%                 
##  7 Connect… 9.1%                   6%                     -3.1%                 
##  8 Delaware 9.7%                   5.9%                   -3.8%                 
##  9 Distric… 7.6%                   3.8%                   -3.8%                 
## 10 Florida  21.3%                  13.3%                  -8%                   
## # ℹ 42 more rows
## # ℹ abbreviated names: ¹​`Uninsured Rate (2010)`, ²​`Uninsured Rate (2015)`,
## #   ³​`Uninsured Rate Change (2010-2015)`
## # ℹ 10 more variables: `Health Insurance Coverage Change (2010-2015)` <dbl>,
## #   `Employer Health Insurance Coverage (2015)` <dbl>,
## #   `Marketplace Health Insurance Coverage (2016)` <dbl>,
## #   `Marketplace Tax Credits (2016)` <dbl>, …

# Rename column
names(df)[names(df) == "Uninsured Rate (2010)"] <- "Unin_Rate_2010"
names(df)[names(df) == "Uninsured Rate (2015)"] <- "Unin_Rate_2015"
names(df)[names(df) == "Uninsured Rate Change (2010-2015)"] <- "Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015"
names(df)[names(df) == "Health Insurance Coverage Change (2010-2015)"] <- "Health_In_Co_Change_2010_2015"
names(df)[names(df) == "Employer Health Insurance Coverage (2015)"] <- "Ep_Health_In_Co_2015"
names(df)[names(df) == "Marketplace Health Insurance Coverage (2016)"] <- "Mp_Health_In_Co_2016"
names(df)[names(df) == "Marketplace Tax Credits (2016)"] <- "Mp_Tax_Credits_2016"
names(df)[names(df) == "Average Monthly Tax Credit (2016)"] <- "Avg_Monthly_Tax_Credit_2016"
names(df)[names(df) == "State Medicaid Expansion (2016)"] <- "State_Medic_Exp_2016"
names(df)[names(df) == "Medicaid Enrollment (2013)"] <- "Medicd_Enrol_2013"
names(df)[names(df) == "Medicaid Enrollment (2016)"] <- "Medicd_Enrol_2016"
names(df)[names(df) == "Medicaid Enrollment Change (2013-2016)"] <- "Medicd_Enrol_2013_2016"
names(df)[names(df) == "Medicare Enrollment (2016)"] <- "Medicr_Enrol_2016"

# Factors/Measures conversion
df[, c("Unin_Rate_2010", "Unin_Rate_2015", "Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015")] <- lapply(
  df[, c("Unin_Rate_2010", "Unin_Rate_2015", "Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015")], 
  function(x) as.numeric(sub("%", "", x))/100)

df$Avg_Monthly_Tax_Credit_2016 <- as.numeric(sub("\\$", "", df$Avg_Monthly_Tax_Credit_2016))

df$State_Medic_Exp_2016 <- as.numeric(df$State_Medic_Exp_2016)

# Drop the last row since it is the total of united states
df <- df[-nrow(df), ]

# Dataframe display after conversion
df

## # A tibble: 51 × 14
##    State                Unin_Rate_2010 Unin_Rate_2015 Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015
##    <chr>                         <dbl>          <dbl>                      <dbl>
##  1 Alabama                       0.146          0.101                     -0.045
##  2 Alaska                        0.199          0.149                     -0.05 
##  3 Arizona                       0.169          0.108                     -0.061
##  4 Arkansas                      0.175          0.095                     -0.08 
##  5 California                    0.185          0.086                     -0.099
##  6 Colorado                      0.159          0.081                     -0.078
##  7 Connecticut                   0.091          0.06                      -0.031
##  8 Delaware                      0.097          0.059                     -0.038
##  9 District of Columbia          0.076          0.038                     -0.038
## 10 Florida                       0.213          0.133                     -0.08 
## # ℹ 41 more rows
## # ℹ 10 more variables: Health_In_Co_Change_2010_2015 <dbl>,
## #   Ep_Health_In_Co_2015 <dbl>, Mp_Health_In_Co_2016 <dbl>,
## #   Mp_Tax_Credits_2016 <dbl>, Avg_Monthly_Tax_Credit_2016 <dbl>,
## #   State_Medic_Exp_2016 <dbl>, Medicd_Enrol_2013 <dbl>,
## #   Medicd_Enrol_2016 <dbl>, Medicd_Enrol_2013_2016 <dbl>,
## #   Medicr_Enrol_2016 <dbl>

# Data inspection
# Statistics function
summarize_numeric = function(dataset) {
  
  dataset = select_if(dataset, is.numeric)
  summary.table = data.frame(Attribute = names(dataset))
  
  summary.table = summary.table %>% 
    mutate("Missing Values" = apply(dataset, 2, function (x) sum(is.na(x))),
           "Unique Values" = apply(dataset, 2, function (x) length(unique(x))),
           "Mean" = colMeans(dataset, na.rm = TRUE),
           "Min" = apply(dataset, 2, function (x) min(x, na.rm = TRUE)),
           "Max" = apply(dataset, 2, function (x) max(x, na.rm = TRUE)),
           "SD" = apply(dataset, 2, function (x) sd(x, na.rm = TRUE))
    )
  summary.table
}

# Statistics display
summarize_numeric(df)

##                        Attribute Missing Values Unique Values          Mean
## 1                 Unin_Rate_2010              0            45  1.415490e-01
## 2                 Unin_Rate_2015              0            42  8.721569e-02
## 3     Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015              0            39 -5.433333e-02
## 4  Health_In_Co_Change_2010_2015              0            51  3.840980e+05
## 5           Ep_Health_In_Co_2015              0            51  3.378275e+06
## 6           Mp_Health_In_Co_2016              0            51  2.172810e+05
## 7            Mp_Tax_Credits_2016              0            51  1.841100e+05
## 8    Avg_Monthly_Tax_Credit_2016              0            47  2.921569e+02
## 9           State_Medic_Exp_2016              0             2  6.274510e-01
## 10             Medicd_Enrol_2013              2            50  1.150867e+06
## 11             Medicd_Enrol_2016              0            51  1.441822e+06
## 12        Medicd_Enrol_2013_2016              2            50  3.286971e+05
## 13             Medicr_Enrol_2016              0            51  1.095961e+06
##           Min          Max           SD
## 1       0.044        0.237 4.201300e-02
## 2       0.028        0.171 3.172527e-02
## 3      -0.103       -0.016 2.133229e-02
## 4   15000.000  3826000.000 6.060467e+05
## 5  335000.000 19552000.000 3.657440e+06
## 6   13313.000  1531714.000 3.135795e+05
## 7    1224.000  1428712.000 2.812288e+05
## 8     178.000      750.000 8.600055e+01
## 9       0.000        1.000 4.882944e-01
## 10  67518.000  7755381.000 1.464344e+06
## 11  63583.000 11843081.000 1.935859e+06
## 12  -3935.000  4087700.000 5.909484e+05
## 13  88966.000  5829777.000 1.147094e+06

The statistics show that the uninsurance rate across the states has declined over the five years from 2010. More than half of the states expanded their state medicares in 2016. The number of Medicaid enrollments has increased, on average, between 2013 and 2016.

# Missing value treatment using mean
df$Medicd_Enrol_2013[is.na(df$Medicd_Enrol_2013)] <- mean(df$Medicd_Enrol_2013, na.rm = TRUE)
df$Medicd_Enrol_2013_2016[is.na(df$Medicd_Enrol_2013_2016)] <- mean(df$Medicd_Enrol_2013_2016, na.rm = TRUE)

# Check missing value again
sum(is.na(df))

## [1] 0

# Outlier detection using Z-Score
# Function
detect_outliers <- function(column) {
  z_scores <- scale(column)
  abs_z_scores <- abs(z_scores)
  outliers <- abs_z_scores > 3
  return(outliers)
}

# Apply the function to all numeric columns
numeric_columns <- sapply(df, is.numeric)
outliers_df <- df[, numeric_columns]

outliers_indices <- logical(0)

for (col in names(outliers_df)) {
  outliers_indices <- outliers_indices | detect_outliers(outliers_df[[col]])
}

# Check if there are any outliers
if (any(outliers_indices)) {
  outliers_data <- df[outliers_indices, ]
  print(outliers_data)
} else {
  cat("No outliers detected in any numeric column.")
}

## No outliers detected in any numeric column.

Data Analysis

Which states observed the greatest decline in their uninsured rate?

# Load a shapefile of US states
states_shapefile <- st_read("/Users/guhanxi/Desktop/Health Insurance Project/tl_2023_us_state")

## Reading layer `tl_2023_us_state' from data source 
##   `/Users/guhanxi/Desktop/Health Insurance Project/tl_2023_us_state' 
##   using driver `ESRI Shapefile'
## Simple feature collection with 56 features and 15 fields
## Geometry type: MULTIPOLYGON
## Dimension:     XY
## Bounding box:  xmin: -179.2311 ymin: -14.60181 xmax: 179.8597 ymax: 71.43979
## Geodetic CRS:  NAD83

# Merge the shapefile
merged_data <- merge(states_shapefile, df, by.x = "NAME", by.y = "State")

# Plot the interactive heatmap
tmap_mode("view")

## tmap mode set to interactive viewing

tm_shape(merged_data) +
  tm_borders() +
  tm_fill("Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015", palette = "RdYlGn", title = "Uninsured Rate Change 2010-2015")

+−

Esri.WorldGrayCanvas

OpenStreetMap

Esri.WorldTopoMap

merged_data

Uninsured Rate Change 2010-2015

-0.12 to -0.10
-0.10 to -0.08
-0.08 to -0.06
-0.06 to -0.04
-0.04 to -0.02
-0.02 to 0.00

Leaflet | Tiles © Esri — Esri, DeLorme, NAVTEQ

# Finding the most impacted state by ACA
subset(df, Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015 == min(df$Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015), 
       select = c("State", "Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015"))

## # A tibble: 1 × 2
##   State  Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015
##   <chr>                       <dbl>
## 1 Nevada                     -0.103

# Finding the least impacted state by ACA
subset(df, Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015 == max(df$Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015), 
       select = c("State", "Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015"))

## # A tibble: 1 × 2
##   State         Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015
##   <chr>                              <dbl>
## 1 Massachusetts                     -0.016

The two methods suggest that, among all the states, citizens in Oregon and Nevada are most impacted by the ACA, experiencing around a 10.3% decrease in the uninsured rate. Conversely, Maine and Massachusetts are impacted the least, with the change hovering around -1.6%. These variations could be attributed to factors such as Medicaid expansion, state policies, insurance market dynamics, or demographic differences.

# Using t test to examine if the difference is significant
t.test(df$Unin_Rate_2010, df$Unin_Rate_2015, paired = TRUE)

## 
##  Paired t-test
## 
## data:  df$Unin_Rate_2010 and df$Unin_Rate_2015
## t = 18.189, df = 50, p-value < 2.2e-16
## alternative hypothesis: true mean difference is not equal to 0
## 95 percent confidence interval:
##  0.04833353 0.06033314
## sample estimates:
## mean difference 
##      0.05433333

# Using computational method to examine if the differences are significant
obs_var <- var(tapply(df$Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015, df$State, mean))

# Permute and compute test statistics
set.seed(1)
vars <- replicate(10000, {
  # Shuffle
  shuffled_total_purchase <- sample(df$Unin_Rate_Change_2010_2015)
  # Assign them back to the original data frame (maintaining sample sizes but ignoring labels)
  df$Shuffled_Total_Purchase <- shuffled_total_purchase
  # Compute the variance in means for the permuted data
  var(tapply(df$Shuffled_Total_Purchase, df$State, mean))
})

# Compute p-value
p_value <- mean(vars >= obs_var)
p_value

## [1] 0.8064

# Fit an OLS model
model <- lm(Medicd_Enrol_2016 ~ Mp_Health_In_Co_2016 + Medicr_Enrol_2016, data = df)

# Display the summary of the model
summary(model)

## 
## Call:
## lm(formula = Medicd_Enrol_2016 ~ Mp_Health_In_Co_2016 + Medicr_Enrol_2016, 
##     data = df)
## 
## Residuals:
##      Min       1Q   Median       3Q      Max 
## -1377711  -225273    26277   279781  2994214 
## 
## Coefficients:
##                        Estimate Std. Error t value Pr(>|t|)    
## (Intercept)          -4.060e+05  1.221e+05  -3.324 0.001704 ** 
## Mp_Health_In_Co_2016 -2.211e+00  6.137e-01  -3.603 0.000745 ***
## Medicr_Enrol_2016     2.124e+00  1.678e-01  12.663  < 2e-16 ***
## ---
## Signif. codes:  0 '***' 0.001 '**' 0.01 '*' 0.05 '.' 0.1 ' ' 1
## 
## Residual standard error: 606700 on 48 degrees of freedom
## Multiple R-squared:  0.9057, Adjusted R-squared:  0.9018 
## F-statistic: 230.5 on 2 and 48 DF,  p-value: < 2.2e-16